Survey for my psychology class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Survey for my psychology class - Essay Example In general there was similarity to the answer on the nature of psychology, except for the youngest, who had no previous exposure to any study on psychology. The answers from the others were satisfactory as all of them have had exposure to psychology in their student days, as could be seen from their response to the second question. The best answer came from the participant undergoing a nursing course, and as such had the best exposure to the nature of psychology in her study classes. The only erroneous answer came from the youngest with the least experience, and no exposure to psychology in his study classes. He has confused psychology with psychiatry, which is a branch of psychology that deals with abnormal functioning of the brain or mental illness. Taking into consideration his exposure, he has exhibited a perception that most people would, when not aware of psychology, as psychiatry is commonly used in the treatment of mental illness. This brings us to the possibility that often perceptions derived from the environment around us need not necessarily be factual, and yet to the human mind it remains otherwise. The third question is relevant to the experiences that the participants have had during their tenure in the college. To the majority the institution is a great place, and this perception arises from the good experiences that they have had. Yet, these perceptions are expressed by members of the faculty and administration. They are bound to say nice things even if they feel otherwise. The nature of the institution from the students’ perception drops to an all right situation from the older student, and a downright condemnation of the institution from the young student, who must be having pretty bad experiences in the institution. Depending on which side of the fence the individual assesses the institution the perception changes. Therefore experience, position and age do

Critical Reflection Essay Example for Free

Critical Reflection Essay Chronic Conversion Disorder Billy Lockhart Troy University- Montgomery, AL Chronic Conversion Disorder In this article the author is doing a case study on a patient known as Ms. T. The article is on Chronic Conversion Disorder Masking Depression and Anxiety: The case of Ms. T. by Dr. Robert C. Kores. A case formulation with therapeutic focus and direction, and follow-up information regarding a patient with somatic concerns is presented. A Conversion Disorder was diagnosed with underlying depression and anxiety. A lack of secure attachment and a nurturing environment were core issues. Family of origin and suppressed feelings and choices, was ridged and hypercritical, rejecting and abusive. The reason for the research was the cause and treatment of a conversion disorder. In this article the Dr. Kores goes through the patient’s life to determine the cause of this disorder. A Conversion Disorder causes patients to suffer from neurological symptoms, such as numbness, blindness, paralysis, or fits without a definable organic cause. It is thought that symptoms arise in response to stressful situations affecting a patients mental health and Conversion disorder is considered a psychiatric disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fifth edition (DSM-5). The author came to the conclusion that Ms. T had grown up in an emotionally challenging home with excessive punishment, ridged rules and forced isolation. She felt disconnected, uninvolved and all alone. When she had married she thought that her husband would not be neglectful. However her husband was emotionally and physically abusive. When she became unable to cope with the abuse she became psychotically depressed and ultimately was psychiatrically hospitalized. She begins to cope by somatic eye closing and head shaking symptoms and was in denial. This led to hysterical blindness in her early thirties. Dr. Kores states that the eye closing may have served as behavior designed to elicit parental support and care and attachment that she never had in early childhood. He then states it could represent â€Å"this is not where I see myself† or â€Å"I cannot see myself here again†. Ms. T. may have viewed herself as a failure as a spouse or adult taking all the blame from the abusive relationship. Ms. T was believed to think she deserved all the â€Å"bad† that was happening to her and she had inadequate problem solving skills. Course of Treatment Dr. Kores states that his therapeutic efforts were directed toward altering her dysfunctional thinking and enhancing her problem solving skills. Dr. Kores used behavioral activation strategies to help her gain more positive reinforcement and increase her social interaction. Dr. Kores had to gain the trust of Ms. T. in order to help her. I believe that the reason this is important to me is because it helps me understand that stress can cause us to react in different ways. In the case of Ms. T. she began to squint her eyes and shake her head. Now if we didn’t know better it could be thought as faking to get attention. However now that I understand what Conversion Disorder is I will never think that again. I think this is important to me because I want to work with veterans someday and I want to be able to help them get through difficult situation that life has thrown at them. References: Troy Library portal, and journal by Dr. Robert C. Kores â€Å"Chronic Conversion Disorder Masking Depression and Anxiety: The Case of Ms. T.†

Following Martin Luther King, Jr :: essays research papers fc

Following Martin Luther King, Jr "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character." (King, Jr.) Following Martin Luther King, Jr.’s speech in the United States capital, many laws, including the Civil Rights Act and the Affirmative Action Act, were amended into the constitution. Despite these laws enforcing the equality of race, the US still faces the same dilemma of 1963: racism. Racism, or the discrimination of a distinguished group of people, remains a problem in businesses, government, universities, in relationships, and in many other situations. Although current laws prohibit the people of the United States to discriminate and harass people of other races, racial incidents continue to remain across the country, and even, around the world. For many years, humanitarians have been trying desperately to eliminate racism. The problem is the attempt to correct the effects of racism, without eliminating the cause of racism itself. In order to eliminate racism and achieve the ultimate dream of justice and equality of all people, Americans must start with teaching children the fallacies of racism and value of diversity. A new curriculum especially for race equality, should be introduced to young students all over the United States, providing all the facts and false stereotypical assumptions about races and racism surrounding them. Racism can be eliminated by creating a curriculum for understanding races. Providing a required racial understanding program for young students, will help them to understand different backgrounds and identities that surround them. Understanding the many identities that distinguish each and every person, will break down stereotypes that identify groups. Understanding creates knowledge and empathy towards people of different backgrounds. Racism can be eliminated by understanding the history of racism. By understanding the history of racism, students can learn how racism started, where it started, how racism is adopted, why it was adopted into our concept, and how its made its way to America, etc. If everybody understands that racism is, and always was, irrelevant to a person’s character, then racism will be eliminated. Racism can be eliminated by confronting the issue. Confronting the issues and being aware of racism’s destruction to society, will allow students, starting at a younger age, to be conscious of racism and its negative effects on life. Being conscious of racism will

Business continuity Essay

Just in time concept is a lean operation concept applied in supply chain management where an enterprise strives to produce only what is needed, whenever it is needed and in the amount that is needed. It allows for efficient production of quality products through complete waste elimination, avoidance of inconsistencies and also elimination of non-value addition activities within the production line. (Lieb & Miller 1988) According to (Stank & Crum 1997) the wastes that are eliminated are related to labour, where over staffing is a waste, time, in this case idle time or use of extra time to accomplish a goal is considered waste. Just in time concept emphasizes on customer requests and avoids making decisions based on forecast. In this concept, inventory is considered as an additional cost to the process. Traditionally, it would be considered to be value adding in the system. In this case, businesses and organisations are advised to eliminate any form of inventory that does not impact any additional value to the product. The just in time concept has various benefits to a business firm or enterprise. The benefits include an improvement in the flow of goods into, within and from the warehouse. There is also better planning and consistency in the organisation. Manpower can be reduced when production process has stopped mainly due to planned shut downs for maintenance, stocktaking activities, or any other reason (Stank & Crum 1997). This helps the enterprise to save on cost related to labour and other production overheads. When an organisation adopts the JIT concept and implements it, it helps in the production of better quality products and also increases the efficiency of production. All the aforementioned benefits are customer oriented. We therefore realise from the benefits customer satisfaction is enhanced. This in turn has an impact on customer loyalty and improved sales by the organisation. The net effect of this is improved profits by the organisation (Swamidass 2000). Despite having all the above benefits, the outcome of the terror attacks on September 11 has cast a lot of doubt on the just in time (JIT) concept deliveries in the supply chain. In a supply chain, each organisation along the chain depends upon a supplier and therefore in case of a hitch along the chain, the repercussions are felt along the whole chain. Before the September 11 attack the â€Å"JIT† was comfortably applicable and implemented to various businesses. Until this time, overstocking was avoided and components were delivered to the right place at the right time and in the right form with no hitch. Piling of inventory was avoided and production processes proceeded smoothly. However, the events of September 11 reversed all these, there were delays caused by grounding of aircrafts and also a longer time was required for border inspections. Transport on land was also highly affected. As an example, due to these interruptions, commodities destined for the Gap, Banana republic and the old navy stores ended up to a warehouse next to an airport. The business environment, both external and internal will always be fluctuating. External environment like the impact from natural calamities e. g. hurricanes, snow, storms, floods, earthquakes and internal environments like strikes, affect business operations. Therefore, for an organisation with a JIT system, in case of any fluctuation in the business environment, the supply chain will be disrupted and therefore flow of products downstream will not be realized (McClenahen & Jusko 2001). For a sudden change in the business environment, the shocks will be felt throughout the supply chain. There will be a gap that will be created along the chain at the point where the fluctuation is highly felt. It is a noble idea for businesses to consider having some safety stock on hand at each link of supply chain, which will take care of the emergencies in case of any eventuality. Since a supply chain consists of a network/series of suppliers and consumers, a hitch on one supplier side will affect the consumer who is also a supplier to the next consumer. Therefore in a business that has adopted the JIT system, it might end up being grounded because of lack of inventory to process or sell to the next stage of the chains. It is therefore highly recommended for such businesses to develop a Just in case system, a system that allows for a safety supplies that will take care of any eventualities. Even though the JIT system has a number of shortcomings in case of shocks within the supply chain, it is important to note that organisations can still implement JIT and maintain an attractive supply chain with lean inventories even during emergencies. To achieve this, one of the moves that a firm can make is locate where there is stock piling of inventories (Lu & Kyokai 1989). Firms can have most of its inventories stocked next to or near their locations. This will help overcome the problems due to shipment or air transport in case these modes of transport are affected. A firm can also consider having more than one supplier for a given commodity, this will be a second option during emergency situations. For an organisation to succeed in its implementation of the JIT system, major changes within the organisation need to be undertaken. The top management need to show commitment and offer full support. They are also required to lead from the front if the benefits of the JIT system are to be realised. The adoption and implementation of the JIT system will substantially affect the mode and criteria through which carriers and other logistics services providers will be recruited by the organisation. Organisations should be able to come up with service providers who are very efficient so as to pass on the efficiency downstream the supply chain. The just in time concept is highly dependent on the speed and efficiency with which products are moving at along the chain. It is therefore worthy to mention that the JIT system will highly affect the style of operations in the logistics industry. The number of logistics service providers to be recruited will also be determined by the success of the JIT system. According to (Ian 1988), constant and effective communication between business firms and their suppliers is another important factor that will affect the future of JIT in the global business environment. The quality of information that will be conveyed should also be put into consideration. The right information should be conveyed to the right place, at the right time and to the right person. A successful implementation of the JIT system in the future will highly depend on additional training of the implementing personnel (Abuhilal, Rabadi, & Sousa-Poza 2006). A lot of emphasise should be on the training of the personnel that are directly involved in the implementation of the JIT concept. This should not be taken to mean that other employees in the organisation should not be trained. An elaborate training plan on this system should be unveiled and the concerned departments or functions for example, production, logistics, marketing should be given intense training. The major areas to be considered should include: policies on JIT system, communication skills and training on commitment to the principles of JIT. The future of the just in time (JIT) system in the global environment will highly depend on the level of technology that will be embraced by an organisation. This includes both in machinery and other office operations. Adoption of improved technology for material handling is a key area that firms need to look at. They should consider embracing cross docking or flowing inventory through a distribution centre. With an improved material handling facility, the businesses can absorb shocks easily in the event that there is disruption in the supply chain (Kreng & Wang 2005) The use of information technology is in inventory management is particularly crucial if the growth and success of the JIT system is to be guaranteed. Business organisations should utilise information technology resources both in hardware and software so as to enhance the success of the JIT system. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) modules should be adopted for inventory management and controls within the organisation. Internet resources should be highly utilised for an effective JIT system. The most applicable resources include e-procurement, e- marketing. e-banking and e-mailing. When an organisation conducts procurement via internet, a variety of goods both in terms of quality and quantity may be obtained. The business deal is also conducted in an accelerated speed. Marketing via the internet allows for the organisation to reach many customers within a very short time and hence improve on the organisation’s sales. Internet banking allows for faster business transactions hence delays associated with payments are reduced and therefore the supply chain is protected from such delays (Hale 1997). To ensure that the intended results of the JIT concept are achieved, it is important for firms doing business together along a given supply chain be proactive in their operations. By being proactive, it means that a consumer should be involved directly in what their supplier is producing. The consumers should be involved in product design so as to have a product of their own making. On the hand it is very important for the suppliers to follow up and find out how their products are serving the customers. This will help in the elimination of ripples along the chain and hence easy implementation of the JIT system. The players in the supply chain should develop a culture of sharing problems when they occur at a particular point of the supply chain, this in a nutshell will reduce the overall effect that the problem would have on the entire supply chain (Titone 1996). The just in case system is another approach that will have an impact on the future of JIT system in the global environment. It is very important for firms to have a buffer stock that can bail it out when events in the supply chain don’t seem to be favourable. The idea of having safety stocks for emergency times should not be confused by firms holding inventories. It is a different concept from overstocking.

Ban Firecrackers

Diwali is celebrated with great vigour all across the nation. Bursting firecrackers is a tradition on Diwali. Diwali is also known as Deepavali in India. Firecrackers! Just the term creates joy and excitement in one’s mind. The heart flutters with thrill and enthusiasm developed by the sight those colorful showers and sparkles from the fireworks in the sky. But is it all about fun? Have you ever wondered how many harmful effects and disadvantages do these fireworks create for the environment?. It is yours, theirs and everyone’s duty to take care of the environment, fellow humans and other living beings. You may wonder why and how.You may be having a great time celebrating and enjoying, bursting those boisterous fireworks. But it need not be the same for the others around you! What about your neighbors? Your neighbor could be sick, or many may have an important appointment the next day. He/she could also be having a test or an exam the next morning and they may need some rest. Burning firecrackers late at night at odd hours disturbs everyone living in that community and disturb their sleep and make them less concentrated in their next day.Firecrackers produce very high level of sound and the vibrations can travel over a long distance. These are sometimes over 140 decibels! A human ear can bear a maximum of 85 decibels. Sounds above this limit create disability in hearing and causes permanent damage to the ears. Firecrackers when burnt release a large amount of very tiny toxic particles that can easily enter our lungs and damage the respiratory system. The smoke from firecrackers contain sulfur compounds, heavy metals and other toxic chemicals and harmful fumes of gases such as sulfur dioxide, ozone etc,. People with asthma, multiple chemical sensitivity and other breathing problems suffer largely due to the toxic emissions from these fireworks.Crackers are unnoticeably affecting all of us. We should understand what it’s doing & how itâ€℠¢ll threaten our very existence in future. Governments should take it very seriously & should: †¢ban the production of crackers †¢enforce laws on its production, sales, use, & advertisement †¢popularize the idea of not using crackers among publicThere’re a lot of causes of global warming & pollution. All the other sources are important for our living despite their ill effects. But cracker is absolutely nothing more than garbage. Be smart, be civilized, use your knowledge, don’t worry about what others think, don’t care about society, & DON’T USE CRACKER.Let each one of us take a pledge this Diwali to say NO to firecrackers and invest in a safer and greener future. Diwali is the festival of lights and we must enlighten our lives with the sparkle of joy and goodwill, forget past grievances and look ahead towards a brighter and happier future.

Sim 336 Essays

Sim 336 Essays Sim 336 Essay Sim 336 Essay Figure 1: Porter’s Five Forces Applying the Porter’s Five Forces model to the industry is not an easy task provided that FedEx Corporation provides various shipping services. In FedEx, these two sectors are represented by FedEx Express and FedEx Ground. FedEx Express is the world’s largest express transportation company. FedEx Ground, on the other hand, is the North America’s second largest provider of small-package ground delivery service, following the lead of United Parcel Service (UPS). 1. Risk of new entry by potential competitors The barriers to entry are very high. One of the reasons there is a high entry barriers is the high fixed cost associated with the establishing the international transportation network. This includes hubs, ground transportation vehicles, air fleet, etc. Additionally, existing companies can take advantage of the absolute cost advantage achieved by large volume of shipment and economies of scale. 2. Extent of rivalry between established firms Established players in shipping service industry complete rigorously for a market share, as demonstrated by the constant battle between FedEx and UPS, the company who responses first to the constantly changing environment wins. Established companies have to strive continuous improvement in quality, lowering price, and innovation. There is very low switching cost for consumers in this industry making rivalry even more intense. In addition, intense rivalry is also due to the fact that maintaining; the infrastructure of an express delivery company presents an exit barrier due to high fixed costs. 3. Bargaining power of buyers The bargaining power of large buyers in shipping service industry is high. Cost associated with switching from one shipping service to another is very low. Therefore, buyers can turn to a shipping provider that offer faster service, lower price, or service innovation with ease. This is especially true for large corporations, like IBM, which ships in large volumes and can bargain quantity discounts. 4. Bargaining power of suppliers The supplier power within this industry is fairly low. Large shipping service provider can affect prices of supplies, like packaging materials. This is because they buy in large quantities and can turn to different suppliers easily. 5. Threat of substitute products There are not many substitutes to shipping. In this day and age where many businesses have strong online presence and a small physical presence, it would be difficult to find a substitute in delivering their products. Shipping services are very much similar to a commodity, in that it is not easily replaced with another service or even a similar service. [pic] Figure 2: Porter’s Five Forces model ? FedEx Corporation. [pic] Figure 3: Porter’s Value Chain techniques. The value chain for FedEx Express can be seen as starting with the pick-up of the packages. FedEx employees gather the packages from various locations such as drop boxes, businesses and residences. Value is created for the customers by making package pick-ups possible just about anywhere or anytime. FedEx has a money back guarantee for those people, whose packages do not arrive on time, therefore creating value by assuring timely delivery of the packages. After the packages are initially picked up, they must then be transported to a hub. The hub is a central location where packages are sorted according to their destinations. The packages will likely pass through many hands before reaching their final destination. The packages stay at the hub until they are picked up and shipped either by truck or plane. The package delivery is probably the greatest value creation activity for FedEx Express. The drivers of the planes and trucks must perform their activities efficiently to increase the perceived value of the service. The drivers must absolutely no matter what, get the packages to their destinations on time, and they do a good job in doing so. By meeting and exceeding the customers’ expectations value is increased with each positive result. The final primary activity is customer service. This function is to provide after sales service and support, however, FedEx provides customer service during the use of the service by letting customers track their package while it’s in route. This creates extreme value for customers because they are able to check the status of their package at any given moment for an increased sense of security. b) The visionary behind the business Since 1973 FedEx had won over 194 awards for operational excellence. Fundamental to success of FedEx business was the vision of its founder. Fred Smith, Chairman, President and CEO of FedEx Corporation, invented the xpress distribution industry in March 1973. The success of FedEx’s distribution business in those early days rested on Smith’s commitment to his belief that the opportunities open to a company that would provide reliable overnight delivery of time-sensitive documents and packages were excellent. In 1980s, FedEx gave away more than 100,000 sets of PCs loaded with FedEx sof tware, designed to link and log customers into FedEx’s ordering and tracking systems. In 1994, FedEx became the first big transportation company to launch a Website that included tracking and tracing capabilities. By applying IT to business, FedEx leapfrogged the rest of the industry. Smith was the visionary who forced his company and offer companies to think outside of the proverbial one. The core of FedEx’s corporate strategy was to†use IT to help customers take advantage of international markets† (1). By 1998, FedEx was a US$10 billion company spending US$1 billion annually on IT developments plus millions more on capital expenditure. It had an IT workforce of 5000 people. Building the Transportation and logistics infrastructure FedEx was quoted as being the inventor of customer logistics management (2). As early as 1974, FedEx started logistics operations with the Parts Bank. FedEx built a small warehouse on the end of its sorting facilities at Memphis. This was FedEx’s first attempt at multiple-client warehousing. As of January 2000 FedEx served 210 countries (making up more than 90 per cent of the world’s GDP), operated 34,000 drop-off locations and managed over 10 million square feet of warehouse space worldwide. It had a fleet of 648 aircraft and more than 60,000 vehicles, with a staff of nearly 200,000. It was the world’s largest overnight package carrier, with about 30 percent of the market share. Building the Virtual information infrastructure Even as early as 1979, a centralised computer system-Customer, Operations, Service, Master On-line System (COSMOS)-kept track of all packages handled by the Company. This computer network relayed data on package movement, pickup, invoicing and delivery to a central database at Memphis headquarters. In 1984, FedEx started to launch a series of technological systems, the PowerShip programme, aimed at improving efficiency and control, which provided the most active customers (over 100,000) with proprietary on-line services. In 1998, FedEx decided to overhaul its internal IT infrastructure under Project GRID (Global Resources for Information Distribution). In 1999, FedEx signed an agreement with Netscape to adopt Netscape software as the primary technology for accessing its corporate intranet sites. FedEx Marketplace launches on fedex. com, providing easy access to online merchants that offer fast, reliable FedEx express shipping. c) Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages |Disadvantages | | | | |- The cost of infrastructure of express delivery companies are a |- Maintaining the infrastructure of an express delivery company is an | |barrier of entry to new comers |exit barrier because of high fixed costs | |- FedEx leadership in global express delivery As long as the nature|- Capitol is acquired through the volume of sales, so the high fixed | |of our socioeconomic environment exists, there will always be a need |costs can hurt when times are slow | |for express delivery |- Due to the nature of the indu stry, it is nearly impossible to become | |- E-commerce is creating an increased need for express delivery |the clear industry leader | |- Globalization offers opportunities for expansion |- The nature of the industry shows very low returns on invested capitol | | | | | |- The E-tailing industry demands ower shipping rates and charges to | | |pull customers from the retailing industries | | |- Major competitors: UPS, the airborne DHL | Figure 4: Opportunities and threats – FedEx Corporation Question 2 a) [pic] Figure 5: Whittington’s Generic Perspective on Strategy (2000). In his â€Å"What is Strategy And Does It Matter? â€Å"(Thomson Learning, 2000), Richard Whittington identifies four main approaches: The Classical approach the oldest and still the most influential relies on the rational planning method dominant in the textbooks. The Evolutionary approach draws on the fatalistic metaphor of biological evolution, but substitutes the discipline of the market fo r the law of the jungle. The Processualist approach emphasizes the sticky imperfect nature of all human life, pragmatically accommodating strategy to the fallible processes of both organizations and markets. The Systemic approach relativistic, regarding the ends and means of strategy as inescapably linked to the cultures and powers of the local systems in which it takes place. Whittington (3) argues that these approaches differ in terms of the outcomes of strategy and the processes by which they are constructed. In terms of outcomes, the Classical and Evolutionary approaches view the maximization of profit as the outcome of strategy, whereas the other two approaches allow for additional outcomes other than profit. In terms of process, the pairings are different with Classical and Systemic approaches agreeing that strategy may be deliberate while Evolutionary and Processualist theorists see strategy as emerging from processes governed by chance, confusion and conservatism. ? The Classical school of thought Classical approaches strategists would include Ansoff (1968) and Porter (1980). The underlying idea of the classical school is that the ultimate goal of business is return on investment (ROI). This end can be achieved through rational planning. It relies on notions of organizations operating as machines using idea of cause as visualize by Morgan (1997) This view of the firm echoes back to Taylorism. One can perceive the firm being broken down into different perceived constituent parts so that they can be studied using a scientific approach (Taylor, 1947). ? The Evolutionary school of thought Evolutionists include Hannan and Freeman (1977, 1989), and Willianson (1984) do not accept the notion of rational planning. They believe that market forces will ensure profit maximization and survival of fittest. The idea here is that organizations are merely fighting for their own survival. Darwin’s theories of natural selection offer an organic metaphor as an alternative to the machine metaphor of classical thinking. Evolutionists do not suggest in implementing managerial strategy. They favor the environmental fit, as markets rather than managers determine the most appropriate strategy. b) Base on figure 5, FedEx Corporation’s strategy will be seen as horizontal integration and vertical integration: Classical school of thought Horizontal integration is a way of trying to increase the profitability of a company by reducing costs, increasing the value of a product offering, managing industry rivalry’s, or increasing the bargaining power of a company. These economic benefits are usually the rewards of company mergers and acquisitions in an industry. Horizontal integration is predominately characterized by similar companies merging together or acquisitions sought by the industry leaders. FedEx has carried out horizontal integration for many years, from as early as the mid 1980’s with their acquisition of the Flying Tiger air fleet to one of their most recent acquisitions of American Freightways in 2001. The FedEx acquisition of American Freightways was the most recent effort of significant size toward horizontal integration. FedEx completed its purchase of American Freightways in February 2001 for $ 1. 2 billion. Since FedEx had already acquired Viking freight in the late 1990’s, Viking freight and American Freightways, both independent operating companies under the FedEx corp. umbrella, will now be known as FedEx Freight. â€Å"To address geographical issues, American Freightways will be known as FedEx Freight East while Viking Freight will be called FedEx Freight West. † (CMP Media) With a singular brand name, Frederick W. Smith, FedEx Corp. s chairman, president and chief executive officer, said, FedEx will boost its sales and marketing capabilities in the growing LTL (less-than-truckload) market. (Scripps Howard Inc. ) While American Freightways and Viking have excellent reputations in their market segments, by joining their sister FedEx companies to compete collectively with the transportation industrys most diverse portfolio of shipping services, FedEx may gain a competitive advantage in the less-than-truckload shipping market. Evolutionary school of thought On the vertical side of integrating the strategy of attack by FedEx is very aggressive. Due to the enormous amount of infrastructure FedEx has, like cargo planes, delivery trucks, and holding hubs, they have a strong competitive position in the shipping services industry. FedEx seems to have tapered integration because although they control most of the distribution channels for their services, they still buy from independent suppliers in addition to company owned suppliers. Most of the independent suppliers provide maintenance services to FedEx, like aircraft maintenance and repair, facilities maintenance, and ground vehicle support equipment; however, some independent suppliers also provide some packaging supplies as well. Most of the vertical integration carried out by FedEx looks to be in the downstream direction, therefore, FedEx has great control over the distribution channels, but it lacks in some upstream activities, such as raw materials and some component part manufacturing. However, with FedEx being largely a services industry it would be very difficult to see if the upstream vertical integration would pay off considering the bureaucratic costs, as well as all of the other implementation costs. It is obvious at this point that FedEx neither has the capability or the need to begin manufacturing their own truck or airplanes. While FedEx has moved in a very aggressive manner to build up its international infrastructure of planes, shipping hubs, and services we thought of a couple of industries and directions that FedEx could follow to further expand. We will examine this according to opportunities presented by looking at the entire FedEx Corporation as a portfolio of competencies. Currently FedEx has its own large fleet of aircraft, extremely efficient storage and packaging capabilities, and tracking functions. This allows FedEx to follow through with its guarantee to customers that their packages will get where they need to go in the time promised. FedEx has a strong commitment to its customers and is constantly working on being able to meet a variety of needs through technology. FedEx also has a competency in technology and innovation. They have a global mindset are presently seeking to grab a global market share. This wouldn’t be possible without a constant push to improve upon and develop new technologies to improve their service. Question 3 [pic] Figure 6: Stacey’s integrated model of decision-making and control (1996). The rational loop The rational loop of discover-choose-act is the classical starting point of strategic management of Stacey, though the strategic manager takes an international approach. The ‘discoveries’ about the organization in relation in its environment generate the necessity to ‘choose’ from many possible courses of action. When choice is decided, the decision-makers ‘act’, and in the effects of their actions, new discoveries are made about state of the organization in its environment, and so on. The rational loop is essentially ‘unitary’: Is bounded by â€Å"rationality†. The choices and actions are those which can be supported by logical argument and evidence, and reference to the state goals, norms and values of the organization. Dissenting views are ‘irrational’, and need not be considered. The overt politics loop The ration loop can be subverted when the time comes to choose between courses of action, all of which are feasible and acceptable in organization terms. People may exert their power individually to influence events, or groups might form. These could be coalitions of like-minded people; or people who, although they do not share the same interests, are willing to act together at least in the short term to oppose others. The political process is ‘overt’, in that it is part of the inevitable bargaining for resources that takes place in any organization that aims to achieve its goals through different functional activities, because the arguments, in public at least, are based on differing ‘rational’ perceptions of the organization in its environment. Strong groups with strong leaders can, however, use their power to impose their preferred ‘rationality’ and so choose the way forward for the organization. The culture and cognition loop ‘The culture and cognition loop’ sustains the unitary organization in its ‘shared mental models’. AS long as everyone subscribes to the organizational culture, and the world does not produce any major surprises, then what is ‘discovered’ over time is likely to fit in with the agreed ‘rationality’ of the organization. If, however, changes in the environment or the effects of earlier organizational actions produce consequences that are very far from those expected, then the stability of the culture is shaken. It is equally disturbed when individuals, possibly from a different profession or maybe newly appointed, challenge the culture or approach issues with different models of how the world works. In this way contradictions and conflict are introduced, and the unitary organization begins to fragment into pluralism. The covert politics loop The new and threatening situation provokes anxiety, and responses are made to that in a way that is largely unconscious. The differences between individuals give rise to different ‘coping’ mechanisms. Some people deal with the fear of failure and the challenge that arises from change by retreating into the ways that they know best (basic assumption behavior) and refusing to deal with the new ‘reality’. If these individuals form a group, then it is possible to see the potential within the organization for ignoring contradiction, and to some extent eliminating the conflict by forcing out those elements that are believed to be the source of it. Stacey (4) has talked of ‘organizational defense routines’ in ‘the covert politics loop’, where people covertly (that is, without being able to admit to the basic fear which is driving their actions) form alliances and take action to make themselves feel safe again. The types of action taken will be explained rationally, but they are the result of unconscious mental processes. References 1. Garten, 1998. 2. Bruner, R. F and Bulkley, D. , â€Å"The Battle for Value: Federal Express Corporation versus United Parcel Service of America, Inc. (Abridged)†, University Darden School Foundation, 1995. 3. Whittington, R. (2000) What is Strategy and does it matter? Thompson Learning. 4. Stacey, R. D (1996) Strategic Management and Organizational Dynamics, Second edition, Pitman, London. Words Counted: 3000 words. 1

From the Sword to Wisdom †Theology Research Paper

From the Sword to Wisdom – Theology Research Paper Free Online Research Papers From the Sword to Wisdom Theology Essay Kendo, the Way of the Sword is a uniquely Japanese expression of Zen and its ultimate principle in rational reality. It was believed that the principles and practices found in the daily elements of the swordsman where not only principles of a chosen career but actual expressions themselves of Zen. In the ‘Way’, the Samurai’s art of combat was not just the application of Zen principles learned from a master, but was itself a living expression of the pure mind transmission of Zen. For the swordsman, obstacles like strategy, death, and technique where all intrinsically bound in the nature of Zen. As such Zen was not a philosophy for combat but was combat itself, combat against the mind, combat against the opponent, combat against oneself. It is in this intrinsic nature that the Japanese ‘Ways,’ not only of the sword, but also of Tea or Calligraphy, are reflections of Zen and Zen is a reflection of daily life. In Japanese culture, the expression of Zen is intertwined in daily life. This expression is reflective of the subtle yet intrinsic link between the spiritual and mundane world unique to the Japanese. Like Zen, the Japanese see no distinction or separation between the Buddha-mind and the elements of daily life. This unique world view is expressed no where better than in ‘Do’ translated as the ‘Ways.’ In these Art forms, simple daily tasks express the principles and spirit of Zen itself. In these ritualistic practices, the enlightened mind is cultivated and expressed in the Ways. ‘Do’ comes from the Sanskrit term ‘marga’ which means ‘path to enlightenment.’ For the Japanese ‘Do’ has come to define a group of practices which are all considered ‘Ways of Life.’ From â€Å"Sado: The way of life of those who practice the tea ceremony, to ‘Kado: The way of life of those who practice the art of f lower arranging † these practices are paths to reach Zen enlightenment. â€Å"Expression of Zen inspiration in everyday activities such as writing or serving tea and in knightly arts as fencing, came to be highly regarded in Japanese tradition. In the end, some of them where practiced as spiritual training in themselves. † The practice of Zen found a natural reflection in the practices of certain arts, the Buddha-mind of Zen was the same ultimate mind in ‘Do.’ As a result, the pursuit of Zen enlightenment in Japan, was not just one of monastic endeavors but because of the nature of Zen, found its reflection and pursuit in the different ‘Do.’ The practice of ‘Do’ is one of experience, and like Zen can not be realized by study alone. ‘Do’ was the active embodiment of Zen in all aspects of the practiced art. ‘Do’ is not any practice like that of politics or fighting but what separated ‘Do’ apart is the principles by which it is practiced. The intent is not the immediate results of victory or skill but is the cultivation of purity of ones mind, a focusing of action to express the active state of enlightenment itself, reflected in the art. When observing Kendo, one may focus on the practitioners speed or style of attack, for one who does not know ‘Do’ the technique is all that can be seen. The mindset to be cultivated in the ‘Ways’ is the same mindset of Zen. Like Zen, the Buddha-mind can not be grasped by shear memorization but must be cultivated. In Kendo, the Buddha nature is a realization through a balance between practice and mind, technique and realization. ‘Do’ is the cultivation and realization of oneness of the mind and body that is an intrinsic part of Zen. As such, practicing the ‘Ways’ serves as a real world embodiment of the divine reality. Zen focuses on seeking the spirit over that of truth, which could only be done through direct transmission of the Buddha-nature from one mind to another. Only through real experience was one able to know reality with the Buddha-nature. As a result logical truth like that of science was as empty as a cup without water. For Zen, one had to attain the understanding of reality of the Buddha-nature. Practice was like the empty cup, Buddhahood was that which fills the cup. â€Å"It came only through the disciples own experience and insight, usually viewed in Zen as a suddenly dawning awareness of the true Buddhahood within ourselves. † This element of realization in the disciple, not through reading or discussion of ideas, but the realization of the living idea was a n important connection. It was not only the authority through practice of ‘Do’ but also embodies the link between the peaceful arts of Zen and that of fighting. Zen did not focus on scripture or images but was experiential. In the fighting arts this is an intrinsic element. The Samurai faced death at every turn and their technique involved the sword. For the Samurai the daily reality was death and as such there was no place for dwelling on words or statues. One fought and either lived or died. Truth and salvation lay in one’s own capabilities. Truth was active and existential. Zen, because it was of the same nature, was undeniably applicable to the reality of the swordsman. For the Samurai, as well as Zen, words on pages where empty symbols which had no significance in of themselves. Sutras could not win a battle, only proper cultivation of the mind and body could result in victory. â€Å"To free themselves from the instinctual attachments to life, the samurai t urned to Zen as a religion of will rather than learning. † The cultivation of Zen in the ‘Way of the Sword’ embodied the ideal of oneness of mind and body. When this is perfectly and truely attained then tension, fear, falsity, and even technique are replaced by the balance of calmness and alertness. The goals of both Zen and the sword are the same and have found in each other a unified expression. Zen and Kendo are unified because the realities of both are not found in words but action. The balance of mind and body which is found in both Zen and Kendo does not come about by constant practice and gaining of skill. Balance like Zen itself, must be cultivated through experience and practice. In Zen as well as Kendo there are stages that the disciple must pass through. In these stages one gains but at the same time must loss in order to advance. This simultaneous gain and loss is the process of the Zen experience. As one practices, knowledge and skill is gained. One becomes familiar with the practice and adapts to it. In Zen, practice, through meditation and Koans, results in familiarity and learned concepts. A student may read a Koan and dwell on a possible answer, intellectualizing the question and preparing an answer. The same happens in Kendo. Through practice, the swordsman learns ways of swinging and footwork, which he uses in developing strategy. Though these skills may help to intellectually understand the physical forms, it is only an intellectual interpretatio n in which there is no ultimate value. For in Swordsmanship. Skill does not dispel death, it does not dispel fear. Skill can only get one so far. â€Å"When the opponent strikes, he instinctively struggles without calculation. But as soon as his training starts, he is taught how to hold the sword, where to place his mind, and many other techniques, which make his mind stop at various places. Thus he loses his freedom of movement. † When someone is taught how to hold the sword then they will try and use this technique in the future. When they were not shown a technique they reacted without concentration on how they where holding the sword but only on using it. This is part of the stages that not only the samurai must pass through but also the Zen practitioner must break free from in order to perfect the art. In the beginning the disciple does not poses technique, the student reacts by instinct, not skill. In the second stage the disciple reacts with technique but has lost inst inct. In the third stage the disciple must react with instinct using skill. To truly know the true mind of Zen, one is not limited by intellectual structures of understand but experiences and reacts unencumbered by fear of death or strategies for victory. The Buddha-nature sees untainted by these limitations and the master comes full circle and reacts with the mind of the beginner. In order to master Kendo, the practitioner must face daily realities, which are not only relative to his art but are intrinsic obstacles in realizing the Buddha nature in Zen. In Zen, the way to cultivate true understanding is to know without knowing and see with out seeing. This approach, to the western mind may seem strange and dualistic, however the reality of this understanding is a central theme in both Zen and all of the ‘Do.’ The concept of Mushin is one of the central most important elements in the different ‘Do.’ Mushin is best characterized as ‘without heart, without mind. ’ it is the cutting off of all unnecessary thoughts. By stopping all unnecessary ideas and perceptions, one is free to act instinctively using the experience they posses unfettered by misconceptions and misinterpretations. â€Å"When thinking disappears there is not nothing but awareness of something which was in a way known all along. † We must cease to see t hings by what we have learned and know. These finite perceptions have not reality in the world itself and are a false reality of what we believe the world to be. When we look at something with out stereotypes or beliefs, that spring from our mind, then we will know the nature of things in of themselves. When we focus on small elements of each situation we fail to see the situation as a whole. We believe that the small part we possess is actually the whole itself. In this seeing we believe we are seeing the whole when we are only seeing a part. The concept of Mushin is to see something unfiltered by desire or fear but to see with out seeing, to know with out knowing. We must direct our mind with the true mind, the mind of Zen, not with the mind of techniques like those learned in the martial arts. The secret of the martial arts, Zen and all the ‘Do’ is to learn to direct the mind and transform it into a mind directed by action. Mushin has been compared to a sneeze, when you sneeze, you do not contemplate it or intellectualize how you are sneezing but just sneeze. In the Shun Jin Mei, Mushin is described as thus â€Å"The highest way is not difficult but you must not make choices. You must entertain neither affection nor distaste. † As in Zen, Mushin is the concept by which the mind breaks through human thought and sees things as they truly are. Mushin is to act without desire for a certain outcome, to live life fully without delusions. It can best be seen as absolute passivity in action. The body reacts but the mind is still. In Kendo the practice of no mind allows the swordsman to react without focusing on anyone element of the combat. If the mind is distracted by anyone element of the situation then another more dangerous aspect may be ignored. For the samurai, the risk of death was assured in every combat. If one worries about how to swing the sword or whether the opponent will use a specific technique then the mind is focused. The point of Mushin is not to focus on any one element of the situation but to react naturally and instinctively. To hesitate could mean death, so it was important that one perceived all elements of a situation instead of just one. The true understanding of no-mind allowed the samurai to practice his art free of entrapment in delusions or tied down by intellectual desires. No-mind goes beyond finite concepts like death and birth and instead allows the practitioner to perceive the infinite in every situation. By not focusing on one element the practitioner can react to any one pa rt because all parts are with in their conscious. Takuan best describes this in his concept of ‘Immovable Intelligence.’ In his discourse, Takuan addresses a student’s questions on what the most important aspect is during combat. â€Å"When your opponent is at the point of striking you, let your mind be fixed on his sword, and you are no more free to be master of your own movements, for you are then controlled by him. This is called stopping, because you are made to stop at one point. † Takuan demonstrates how one can be defeated if they place their attention on one specific aspect of combat. By focussing on the opponent’s sword, their mind is ‘stopped’ at one point and so is not perceiving infinitely, but only one aspect of the entire situation. When death is at stake, No-mind becomes the armor that will protect you. This holds true for any single aspect, focusing on techniques of swinging ones sword will cause the mind to only focus o n the sword and not the opponent. If one must focus then it should be nothing at all. This emptiness as Takuan puts it is the ultimate goal of both Kendo and Zen. The practitioner must empty their mind. In this state, the opponent is empty and the sword is empty. There is no one part of the whole, but is itself a whole which con only be perceived as such. To try and perceive only part of the whole is to fail to perceive it at all and for the samurai this ultimately meant death. In emptiness the practitioner’s mind is not moving from one element to another, it is calm yet never at rest. â€Å"The moon has no intent to cast its reflection anywhere, nor does the pond design to lodge the moon. † The practitioner of No-mind-ness is like this analogy. They are like the moon, fixed in the sky but the reflection constantly moving back and forth on the water. The moon is a harmony of being never still and never moving all at once. It is this nature that one strives for not only in Zen but in all the ‘Ways’ as well. One must never be locked into one way of thinking or stopped on one aspect of something, in this constant of emptiness the practitioner is constant. The concept of ‘stopping’ is ultimately the nature of our deluded conscious and the result of suffering in Buddhism. When our mind focuses on one specific part of the whole, we fail to see the whole. This ‘stopping’ is the result of the perception of death and birth. Death and birth are perceived as constants when they are actually only part of a larger whole. We believe that death is a finality and thus our conscious places an extreme weight on it. However in Zen, death is not the ultimate part of our nature, but because we do not see with no-mind-ness we mistakenly believe it to be an ultimate end. All intellectualizing aside, death is a very important concept in all cultures, even that of Japan. It is perceived as a great barrier, which we can not break through. Death exists in the mind as something to be feared or questioned. For the samurai death was faced everyday and as such had to be overcome. If the samurai could not overcome the fear of death then his mind would forever ‘stop’ at death and he could never attain no-mind-ness. â€Å"To be always ready to face death, that is, to sacrifice oneself unhesitatingly when occasion arises. To do this, much mental and spiritual training is needed. † A samurai’s life was one of combat and as such death was assured. Death would come to one or both of the participants. The samurai had to overcome death and all the things that can result from it in the mind in order to succeed. Fear of getting hurt could keep the swordsman from giving his full attention or energy while swinging. Fear could result in hesitation and thus result in his death. Of all the ‘Do’, Kendo is most truly a reflection of the ultimate principles of Zen. In Zen one must let go of the concepts of death as ultimacy and perceive all aspects of life. For death is only one part and is not it’s total. The ‘Hagakure’ which means ‘Hidden under the Leaves’ ex emplifies the importance of the samurai to be able to sacrifice his life at any moment. â€Å"When the unconscious is tapped , it rises above individual limitations. Death now loses its sting all together, and this is where the samurai training joins hands with Zen. † The ultimate secret in the way of the sword is the ability to truly be unmoved by death and to make it as unimportant as any other fact in your conscious. To do this the samurai had to place death in his mind at all times and treat it like all other parts of the whole. Death was in the swordsman’s mind every morning and every evening. It was necessary to have it in the mind at all times so that every moment was treated as the last and as such, not even death could stop the swordsman. It is this fact that is key to Kendo. For the intention of Swordsmanship is to commit yourself completely to the job of killing the opponent. In Zen this act of committing oneself completely and wholly, free of moral concept s or rituals is it’s essence. In this, Zen and Kendo are of the same mind and nature and as such greatly appealed to samurai. â€Å"Those who cling to life die, and those who defy death live. The essential thing is the mind Look into this mind and firmly take hold of it and you will understand that there is something in you which is above birth-and-death and which is neither drowned in water nor burned by fire. † By living by the principles of Zen, concepts of life and death dim in the face of true perception of reality. Values placed on death like any other part of the whole of true reality loses it’s hold on the mind. By living each day as the swordsman’s last, the samurai did not fall to fear or hesitation in the face of danger but acted without question by ones instinct. To the samurai death was only a mental stumbling block to be overcome. In their practice of Zen the swordsman was trained to die the ‘Great Death’ of the delusionary worl d and be reborn to the true nature, the Buddha nature, which existed above death and life. Through Kendo one cultivate absolute strength as well as absolute wisdom, where every fight can be fought as if life where at stake. In order to cultivate this balance of strength and wisdom one must practice wholly the way and for all ‘Do’ that way is in Zen. The practice of Zen is found in the aspect of meditation, which is the practice by which emptiness is achieved and cultivation occurs. By practicing Zazen meditation, one can cultivate the proper attitude of mind, which is called ‘Hishiryo.’ Meditation occurs, not only sitting in the lotus position, but ultimately for Zen is the same mind in walking, breathing as well as fighting. For the samurai who must face death in everything at all times, Zazen is the embodiment of the cultivation. For the mind cultivated in Zazen is the no-mind, the mind that grasps the whole and is not stopped in the delusionary aspects. â€Å"In Zazen, every breath out is the one now, and it never comes again. † Zazen i s not only the cultivation of the mind but is the reality of the Buddha-mind, which exists in every aspect of the practitioner at every moment. To practice Zazen is to face death all the time, in combat or sitting in meditation. One can not rest during Zazen as well as during training because both are to be done wholly with out holding back. At the end of practice there should be no energy left, nothing at all left. To hold back would fail to live each moment as if it is your last. Zen meditation transcends the ego focused mind by redirecting it’s power to no-mind-ness. Zazen like the way of the sword is not just something to be practiced but is itself a reality that pervades everything. To practice Zazen is to never stop perceiving the whole, to never stop at death. It is itself ultimate reality. â€Å"Kendo meditation follows the same rationale observed in Zen: the anticipation of instant realization, e.g. enlightenment, through meditation is a delusion. The goal of both i s to build a new mental configuration. † Zazen is not a practice which ends with enlightenment but is itself, not only the process of awakening to the infinite, the infinite consciousness. As such there is not end to the practice of Zazen, for to cease Zazen would be to ‘stop.’ In Kendo this ideal is the same, the art of the ‘Way’ is itself the realization of the Buddha mind. To cease practicing the way would result in ‘stopping.’ In this aspect both Zen and Kendo seem to have not only the same ultimate goal but are also of the same nature. As such Kendo in all its aspects of Mushin, death and practice is itself an act of meditation. In Zazen, one sits to gain enlightenment and to live in ultimate reality. The practice of Kendo is itself Zazen, there is no distinction between Zen and Kendo. For Kendo is active meditation following the same path as Zazen and both grasping for the same mental understanding. In Japan the ‘Way of the Sword’ is not just a philosophy for combat. It is rooted in Zen so deeply that the boundary between the two seems to blur. This blurring is not coincidental or even accidental but is reflective of the subtle and important nature of Kendo. The ‘Ways’, not only that of the Sword but of Tea and calligraphy are themselves Zazen. The mindset cultivated in Zazen is the same as that cultivated in the ‘Ways.’ Kendo is defined by the same principles as Zen from the cultivation of Mushin to the facing of death in every aspect of consciousness. Kendo’s subtle nature of the connection of Swordsmanship and Ultimate reality is reflective of the subtle nature of Zen itself. For Zen is not a philosophy which is applied to daily life. It is not a separate ideal by which life is modeled or molded to. It is itself the reflection of the sacred aspect that is life itself which is reflected in every single nuance and turn in the sword of the Kendoist as well as the making of Tea. For the Japanese the ‘Ways’ are not reminders or pointers to sacred reality but is sacred reality itself. Bibliography Leggett, Trevor Zen and The Ways. Charles E. Tuttle Company. Vermont, 1978 Sayama, Mike Samadhi: Self Development in Zen, Swordsmanship, and Psychotherapy. SUNY Press, New York 1986. King, Winston L. Zen and the Way of the Sword. Oxford University Press, New York 1993. Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. Zen Buddhism and its Influences on Japanese Culture. The Eastern Buddhist Society, Otani Buddhist College, Tokyo, 1938. Musashi, Miyamoto. A Book of Five Rings. The Overlook Press. New York, 1974. Kiyota, Minoru. Kendo: Its Philosophical History and Means to Personal Growth. Kegan Paul International, New York. 1995. Random, Michel. The Martial Arts. Peerage Books, London 1977. Deshimaru, Taisen. The Zen Way to the Martial Arts. Penguin Group, New York. 1982 Ed. De Bary, William Theodore. The Buddhist Tradition in India, China and Japan. Vintage Books. New York, 1969. Research Papers on From the Sword to Wisdom - Theology Research PaperOpen Architechture a white paperThree Concepts of PsychodynamicEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionMind TravelResearch Process Part OneMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesThe Spring and Autumn

The Hukbalahap Rebellion in the Philippines

The Hukbalahap Rebellion in the Philippines Between 1946 and 1952, the government of the Philippines fought against a tenacious foe called the Hukbalahap or Huk (pronounced roughly like hook).  The guerrilla army got its name from a contraction of the Tagalog phrase Hukbo ng Bayan Balan sa Hapon, meaning Anti-Japanese Army.  Many of the guerrilla fighters had fought as insurgents against the Japanese occupation of the Philippines between 1941 and 1945.  Some were even survivors of the Bataan Death March who managed to escape their captors. Fighting for Farmers Rights Once World War II was over and the Japanese withdrew, the Huk pursued a different cause: fighting for the rights of tenant farmers against wealthy land-owners. Their leader was Luis Taruc, who had fought brilliantly against the Japanese in Luzon, the largest of the Philippine islands.  By 1945, Tarucs guerrillas had retaken most of Luzon from the Imperial Japanese Army, a very impressive result. A Guerrilla  Campaign Begins Taruc began his guerrilla campaign to overthrow the Philippine government after he was elected to Congress in April of 1946, but was refused a seat on charges of election fraud and terrorism.  He and his followers went to the hills and renamed themselves the Peoples Liberation Army (PLA). Taruc planned to create a communist government with himself as president.  He recruited new guerrilla soldiers from tenant organizations set up to represent poor peasants who were being exploited by their landlords. The Assassination of Aurora Quezon   In 1949, members of the PLA ambushed and killed Aurora Quezon, who was the widow of former Philippine president Manuel Quezon and the head of the Philippine Red Cross.  She was shot dead along with her eldest daughter and son-in-law.  This killing of a very popular public figure known for her humanitarian work and personal kindness turned many potential recruits against the PLA. The Domino Effect By 1950, the PLA was terrorizing and killing wealthy land-owners across Luzon, many of whom had ties of family or friendship with government officials in Manila.  Because the PLA was a left-wing group, although it was not closely affiliated with the Philippine Communist Party, the United States offered military advisers to assist the Philippine government in combating the guerrillas. This was during the Korean War, so American concern about what would later be termed the Domino Effect ensured eager US cooperation in anti-PLA operations. What followed was literally a textbook anti-insurgency campaign, as the Philippine Army used infiltration, misinformation, and propaganda to weaken and confuse the PLA.  In one case, two PLA units each became convinced that the other was actually part of the Philippine Army, so they had a friendly-fire battle and inflicted heavy casualties on themselves.   Taruc Surrenders In 1954, Luis Taruc surrendered.  As part of the bargain, he agreed to serve a fifteen-year prison sentence.  The government negotiator who convinced him to give up the fight was a charismatic young senator named Benigno Ninoy Aquino Jr.   Sources: Bridgewater, L. Grant.  Philippine Information Operations During the Hukbalahap Counterinsurgency Campaign, Iosphere, Joint Information Operations Center, accessed July 2014.Gojo, Romelino R.  The Hukbalahap Movement, Command and Staff College Thesis, April 6, 1984.Greenberg, Lawrence M.  The Hukbalahap Insurrection: A Case Study of a Successful Anti-Insurgency Operation in the Philippines, 1946 - 1955, U.S. Army Center of Military History, Historical Analysis Series, Washington DC, 1987.

Response paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Response paper - Essay Example If this is how to define a miracle then obviously child birth is a miracle, because it is the realization that a normal biological event has brought a brand new life into the world. If one considers that the Nike advert the realization and self fulfillment of individual attaining goals that are believed to beyond that individual’s capabilities can be considered wonderful. The main difference between Hobbs’ miracle story structure and the Nike advert is that usually a miracle is the realization of the divine; as opposed to self-fulfillment of the individual. Yet, as Hobbs indicates a miracle changes with society and culture; therefore in modern culture a lot of what was thought miraculous and the act of the divine can be explained through scientific fact. Therefore the miraculous is more to do with faith, whether it is in the divine, nature or one’s self. Hence, the angle of the miraculous as self-realization, as life changing or wonderful then in the modern era w here a considerable amount of people have turned away from the external belief of the divine to self-fulfillment. In many ways the Nike advert is like the miracle story presented by Hobbs because it is indicating that there are wonderful, life changing events as long as one has either faith in themselves or the divine. The main difference is that the divine is no longer necessary. 2) Read Staley and Walsh, â€Å"Hayes† and Note at least three significant differences between the three versions of the story (think in terms of plot, setting, dialogue, characters). How would most scholars account for the similarities? What might account for the differences? Hayes’ family movie of Jesus is quite an interesting take, because it picks parts from the Gospels of Mark, Luke and John and creates another version of the miracles of Jesus. The first interesting point is that Hayes uses Luke’s version of Mary Magdalene whereby

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Dis 8 - 527 - two paragraph same idea with different words - Assignment Example Each country has its own interests and tries to attain its own goals. But as at present all countries are interdependent, any changes in one or several of them, which are not done for the sake of the whole world, but for personal interests and advantages, may bring to the changes in other countries and to disorder in the global system functioning. The examples of such changes and interdependence are the global financial crisis, which took place a few years ago, the cut of interest rates in the USA due to changes in global money flows, the present political and economic sanctions, imposed on Russia because of events in Ukraine, and many other. The combination and controversy of personal countries interests and the necessity to make the global system work can lead to instability of the global economy functioning. The complexity, high frequency and speed of changes make the world more unstable and fragile. The misunderstanding of the events and their reasons, lack of guarantees and the difficulty to predict future make people fear and panic, even though the overall indicators of peoples welfare increased in the whole world. So as globalization becomes more and more complex, and it cannot be stopped, it is better to consider it as a condition of future development of the world, rather than one of the possible

Historical Travel Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Historical Travel Paper - Essay Example Due to the presence of these famous individuals, the place of Louisville became quite prominent among others. However, certainly after some years, it came into limelight as a distinctive place in Kentucky history due to its various well-known places of interest. From horse racing to numerous geographical natural resources, Kentucky is a place of a rich heritage and ethnicity. One of such famous locations in Kentucky is Louisville. It is a place famous for many notable inventions and events such as Edison’s light bulb, the first artificial heart transplant, a famous horse race (Kentucky Derby) and many others. Due to such reasons, it is recognised as one of the world famous locations in the United States (Tyler 20). Discussion Significance of Louisville in the history of Kentucky. Louisville is recognised as a renowned place in the history of Kentucky as it played a major role in the Civil War of America. It acted as a major foothold for the Union forces as well as a centre of planning and scheduling, transportation of campaigns, and many other requirements. Numerous Native Americans emigrated from other regions to get settled in this place. What is ‘sold down the river’? It is also a notable place for the trading of slaves to other regions, and so, it is also known as the place of ‘sold down the river’. ... This remarkable fact marked the importance of the place of Louisville in the history of Kentucky for the future generations to feel the trouble faced by the black people of that place. Apart from this, Louisville is also famous for the thoroughbred horse races, also known as Kentucky Derby. What is Kentucky Derby? Kentucky Derby is the world famous race of horses conducted on the first Saturday in May. Numerous world renowned politicians and respectable citizens visit the place of Louisville as to enjoy the race of horses. It lasts for two weeks and is accompanied with varied types of parades with balloons. It is also described as ‘the most exciting two minutes in sports’, mainly because three-year-old horses run 11/4 miles for two minutes. Moreover, the horses that run in these races are mainly male young horses of at least 126 pounds, female horses of 121 pounds are also allowed to run in the races of Kentucky Derby. Nowadays, almost 200,000 citizens all around the glo be watch this race by television. So, it has become so famous in the history of Kentucky (Luhan 45). Due to such reasons, the place of Louisville became extremely known in the entire world among other adjoining places. Consequently, Kentucky Derby of Louisville is also known as ‘run for roses’. This is so, because the fastest horse and the jockey are presented with a garland of red roses as an honour. Along with this, the garland also includes a seal of common wealth to make it more memorable. Along with this, the winner is also presented a trophy developed by New England Sterling. Due to all these above mentioned famous things, Louisville is recognised as a reputed location in Kentucky history (City of Louisville 62). Personal and Historical Perspective After learning more about Louisville

Dis 8 - 527 - two paragraph same idea with different words Assignment

Dis 8 - 527 - two paragraph same idea with different words - Assignment Example Each country has its own interests and tries to attain its own goals. But as at present all countries are interdependent, any changes in one or several of them, which are not done for the sake of the whole world, but for personal interests and advantages, may bring to the changes in other countries and to disorder in the global system functioning. The examples of such changes and interdependence are the global financial crisis, which took place a few years ago, the cut of interest rates in the USA due to changes in global money flows, the present political and economic sanctions, imposed on Russia because of events in Ukraine, and many other. The combination and controversy of personal countries interests and the necessity to make the global system work can lead to instability of the global economy functioning. The complexity, high frequency and speed of changes make the world more unstable and fragile. The misunderstanding of the events and their reasons, lack of guarantees and the difficulty to predict future make people fear and panic, even though the overall indicators of peoples welfare increased in the whole world. So as globalization becomes more and more complex, and it cannot be stopped, it is better to consider it as a condition of future development of the world, rather than one of the possible

The Attitude of the Youth towards Classical Music Essay

The Attitude of the Youth towards Classical Music - Essay Example There is a need o discuss the opinions of the youth on the subject.  .  Personal preferences and liking have  a strong link to the field of consumer behavior. Personal choices of the consumer depend on the background they come from and the life style they lead. Music is enjoyed by almost all segments of the population. Each segment has their own tastes of music, they may vary from soulful to rock, pop and even classical music. The section liking classical music is reducing and especially in the younger generation. we don’t find many people that like classical music.  According to Philip Hart  (1973), the data available of the entire mass of the American orchestra depicts that the information is less concrete considering any aspect related to its audience. The symphony orchestra has diversified instruments; with time the composers have to work with complex things and their works written are more intricate that are suitable to the artistic needs required (Unger-Hamilton et. al 1988).Traditional music has become obsolete in today’s lifestyle, and the essence of music is focused more towards the bodily rhythmic movements  and the catchy notes  that provides, rather than the main influence  and quintessence of the form o f classical music. The need for classical music has been eradicated and the thirst for pop music is both commanding and influential.  Classical music is considered as the most primitive form of music. Sadly, the youth today gives no importance and holds no desires to learn classical music.  In many cultures the study of classical music was a must but youth nowadays are losing interest in learning this genre of music. In this chapter the topic of classical music will be introduced giving an introduction related with the younger generation.  The history of classical music will be observed and its quintessential nature will be brought into discussion.   

W.S. Merwins translation of poem Essay Example for Free

W.S. Merwins translation of poem Essay As I read W.S. Merwins translation of this poem, I feel a sense that the poet was trying to articulate the harmony which exists between humanity and nature. The initial lines of the poem: Into my head rose/the nothings/ my life day after day (Merwin) seemed to indicate a state of disharmony, sadness and banality. The reader immediately wonders: what might be the cause of the poets malaise. Rather than immediately show or evoke the source of sadness and disharmony in the poem, the next lines reveal the antidote to this feeling, which is expressed in motion: but I am leaving the shore/in my skin boat (Merwin) which sets up a metaphor of the body-as-voyage. This feeling moves toward at least a partial explanation,explication of the poets source of malaise and sadness: the world itself, but particularly the world of human ambition and human affairs: and the ache/ that comes from the things/I have to do every day (Merwin) This realization on the part of the poet which is expressed obliquely to the reader allows the second half of the poem to function as a response to or answer to the poets malaise and sadness. By separating the poem into a call and response format, it is easier for the reader to sense the movement of the poem from a state of emotional disharmony to a state of reprieve or even illumination. The most profound aspect of the   call and response motif is that it actually unifies dual idea of the poet speaking to nature or inquiring into it for a panacea against malaise and angst and the poet inquiring into himself for an answer to his emotional distress. By unifying these concepts, the poet expresses that nature and the human soul are actually one.   The concluding lines bring a simultaneous experience of going back to nature and of being reborn. By juxtaposing the idea of introspection with a journey into nature, the poet is able to bring the reader through an emotional arc which begins with feelings of oppression and melancholy and transforms through a vision of a nature and the soul as one, into an image of rebirth which more than adequately disperses the melancholic feelings expressed by the poet and brought to climax in the reader, making a dramatic emotional and psychological reversal from sadness to joy.

Organizational behaviour theories

Organizational behaviour theories 1.0 INTRODUCTION The purpose of this essay is to discuss the statement â€Å"organizational behaviour theories and concepts are only useful for managers† with real world examples supporting the discussion. Organizations are not buildings or pieces of machinery. Organizations are, indeed, people who interact to accomplish shared objectives. The study of organizational behaviour (OB) and its affiliated subjects helps us understand what people think, feel and do in organizational settings. For managers and, realistically, all employees, this knowledge helps predict, understand and control organizational events. Organizational behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behaviour within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organisations effectiveness (Robbins, Millett, Marsh, 2004). Though there is still considerable debate as to the components or topics of the area of OB, there appears to be general accord that OB includes the core topics of motivation, leader behaviour and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and process, learning, attitude development and perception, emotions, change processes, conflicts, work design work stress. To sum up OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organization and how that behaviour affects the performance of the organization. To achieve the purpose the essence of this essay strives to analyze the controversial and complex theories and concepts of organisational behaviour to discuss those theories and concepts useful for everyone or only managers of an organisation. 2.0 Role of the Manager 2.1. Who is a Manager? A manager is someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals. The changing nature of organizations and work has altered the role of managers. 2.2. What do Managers Do Describing what managers do isnt an easy or simple task! Just as no two organizations are alike, no two managers jobs are alike. A managers job can be described from various perspectives: functions, roles, essential skills, systems, and contingencies. Each approach provides a different perspective on the managers job. Management is the process of coordinating work activities so theyre completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people. Efficiency refers to getting the most output from the least amount of inputs. Effectiveness is concerned with completing activities so that organizational goals are attained. Efficiency is concerned with the means of getting things done and effectiveness is concerned with the ends. The process of management refers to the idea that management consists of a set of ongoing decisions and actions in which managers engage as they plan, organize, lead, and control. Planning involves defining an organizations goals and establishing strategies and plans to achieve those goals. Organizing includes designing a structure to carry out the plans. Leading involves motivating subordinates, influencing individuals or teams, communicating effectively, and dealing with employee behaviour issues. Finally, controlling includes monitoring, comparing, and correcting the organizations performance. Henry Mintzberg concluded that managers perform 10 different roles or behaviours. He classified them into three sets. One set is concerned with interpersonal relationships (figurehead, leader, liaison). The second set is related to the transfer of information (monitor, disseminator, spokesperson). The third set deals with decision making (entre-preneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, negotiator). Robert Katz identified three skills managers need: technical, human, and conceptual. He showed that the relative importance of these skills varied according to the management level within the organization. The systems perspective can be used to describe what a manager does because organizations are open systems with interrelated and interdependent parts. Within this system, managers coordinate the various work activities so that the organization can meet its goals. The reality of work is that manager will either manage or be managed, and there are rewards and challenges in being a manager. 3.0 Organisational behaviour theories and concepts There are several crucial reasons why companies should utilize the concepts and theories of OB, as well as understand the key terms that are associated with organizational behaviour. One of the most important and broad-based challenges facing organizations today is adapting to diverse work environments. Organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender, race, and ethnicity. For example, several key terms that must also be understood organizational culture, diversity, communication, organizational effectiveness and efficiency, organizational learning. 3.1. Attitudes Attitudes are evaluative statements either favourable or unfavourable concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how an individual feels about something. When a person says, I like my job, he or she is expressing an attitude about work. The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance:Cognitive dissonance theory sought to explain the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Cognitive dissonance is any incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes. The theory argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will try to reduce the dissonance and, thus, the discomfort. In other words, individuals seek stability with a minimum of dissonance. Self-Perception Theory: People decide on their own attitudes and feelings from watching themselves behave in various situations. (Straker, c Syque 2002-2009) Usefulness of Attitudes Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Effective managers need to understand behaviours and attitudes of employees. Therefore knowing above theories Managers can pressure to reduce the dissonance when employees recognize that the dissonance is externally imposed and uncontrollable. The pressure is also decreased if rewards are significant enough to offset the dissonance. So the manager may point to external forces such as competitors, customers, or other factors when explaining the need to perform some work activity about which workers may have some dissonance. Or the manager can provide rewards that workers desire in order to decrease their attempts to get rid of the dissonance. Another implication for managers is that there is relatively strong proof that committed and satisfied employees have low rates of turnover and absenteeism. Knowing that managers would like to keep resignations and absences down, mostly among their most productive employees. Managers can do those things by generating positive job attitudes. Measuring employee satisfaction through attitude surveys can alert managers to any significant changes. The manager who knows about the above theories can reduce absenteeism and turnover by using those theories and concepts. Employees who know attitude theories and concepts try to reduce dissonance and decide on their attitudes and feelings which lead them to the successful job performance. Then furthermore successful job performance should lead to feelings of accomplishment, increased pay, promotions, and other rewards, all desirable outcomes that then lead to job satisfaction of employees. 3.2. Personality The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, measurable traits a person exhibits. There are dozens of personality traits could use; for instance, aggressive, shy, ambitious, loyal, and lazy. The Big Five Model of Personality Dimensions: The big-five personality traits are; Extraversion: The degree to which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive. Agreeableness: The degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. Conscientiousness: The degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented. Emotional stability: The degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative). Openness to experience: The degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual. Personality-Job Fit Theory (Holland): Identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover. The six basic personality types of work environments are; Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional. Usefulness of Personality Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. For managers the major value in understanding personality differences probably lies in employee selection. Managers are likely to have higher performing and more satisfied employees if consideration is given to matching personalities with jobs. The best-documented personality job fit theory has been developed by psychologist John Holland. His theory states that an employees satisfaction with his or her job, as well as his or her likelihood of leaving that job, depends on the degree to which the individuals personality matches the occupational environment. Furthermore it illustrates satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are compatible. Therefore its valuable for managers to know about personality theories and concepts. Also being a successful manager and accomplishing goals means working well together with others both inside and outside the organization. In order to work effectively together, managers need to understand each other. This understanding comes, at least in part, from recognizing the ways in which people differ from each other that is, from an appreciation of personality traits. In addition, there are other benefits to a managers understanding of personality. By recognizing that people approach problem solving, decision making, and job interactions differently, a manager can better understand why, for instance, an employee is uncomfortable with making quick decisions or why another employee insists on gathering as much information as possible before addressing a problem. Or, for instance, managers can expect that individuals with an external locus of control may be less satisfied with their jobs than internals and also that they may be less willing to accept responsibility for their actions. People who choose to work in an environment similar to their personality type are more likely to be successful and satisfied. For that reason knowing personality theories and concepts person can select a job that fit for him or her. For example, Artistic persons are more likely to be successful and satisfied if they choose a job that has an Artistic environment, like choosing to be a dance teacher in a dancing school an environment dominated by Artistic type people where creative abilities and expression are highly valued. Moreover knowing those theories help employees to work with their office mates/staff with an understanding. 3.3. Learning Learning occurs all the time as we continuously learn from our experiences. It can define as any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. Classical conditioning: A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they dont want. Operant behaviour describes voluntary or learned behaviour in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behaviour. The tendency to repeat learned behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement that happens as a result of the behaviour. Social-learning theory: Individuals also can learn by observing what happens to other people and just by being told about something as well as by direct experiences. So, for example, much of what we have learned comes from watching others (models)—parents, teachers, peers, television and movie actors, managers, and so forth. This view that we can learn both through observation and direct experience is called social learning theory. Shaping behaviour theory: Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. Usefulness of Learning Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Employees are going to learn on the job. The only issue is whether managers are going to manage their learning through the rewards they allocate and the examples they set or allow it to occur unsystematically. If marginal employees are rewarded with pay raises and promotions, they will have little reason to change their behaviour. In fact, productive employees, seeing that marginal performance gets rewarded, might change their behaviour. According to it managers can use learning theories and concepts to motivate employees to do thing as wanted. 3.4. Perception Decision Making Perception is a process by which individuals give meaning to their environment by organizing and interpreting their sensory impressions. Attribution Theory: Attribution theory was developed to explain how we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behaviour. Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individuals behaviour, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Internally caused behaviours are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. Externally caused behaviour results from outside factors; that is, the person is forced into the behaviour by the situation. That determination, however, depends on three factors: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. Decision making is an integral function of management. Decision making involves selecting or choosing a particular course of action from among the various alternatives available in the decision making situation. Rational Decision-Making Model: A decision-making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximise some outcome. Step 1. Define the Problem Step 2. Identify the Decision Criteria Step 3. Weight the Criteria Step 4. Generate Alternatives Step 5. Rate Each Alternative on Each Criteria Step 6. Compute Optimal Decision Usefulness of Perception Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Managers need to recognize that their employees react to perceptions, not to reality. So whether a managers appraisal of an employee is actually objective and unbiased or whether the organizations wage levels are among the highest in the community is less relevant than what employees perceive them to be. Employees organize and interpret what they see, so there is always the potential for perceptual distortion. The message to managers should be clear: Pay close attention to how employees perceive both their jobs and management actions. Since the valuable employee who quits because of an inaccurate perception is just as great a loss to an organization as the valuable employee who quits for a valid reason. In addition, job satisfaction also influences organizational behavior, primarily through perceptions of fairness. That means â€Å"If employees dont feel that their supervisors or the organizations procedures or pay policies are fair, their job satisfaction is likely to suffer significantly. However, when employees perceive organizational processes and outcomes to be fair, trust is developed. And when employees trust their employer, theyre more willing to voluntarily engage in behaviors that go beyond the formal job requirements†. Usefulness of Decision Making Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Studies show that managers may spend up to 70 percent of their time in group meetings. Undoubtedly, a large portion of that time is spent formulating problems, developing solutions, and determining how to implement the solutions.Therefore it proved knowing decision making theories and concepts is useful for as individually managers. It helps to make decisions in order to gain maximum productivity. 3.5. Motivation Motivation is the process that account for an individuals intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. In todays world motivation is seen as being best achieved by a combination of elements within the organization that combine to produce it: needs; job design; satisfaction. There are many theories of motivation that have emerged in organizational behaviour literature. Early Theories of Motivation Hierarchy of needs theory: Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (often represented as a pyramid with five levels of needs) is a motivational theory in psychology that argues that while people aim to meet basic needs, they seek to meet successively higher needs in the form of a hierarchy. Maslows Hierarchy of needs (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2009) Individuals cant move to the next higher level until all needs at the current level are satisfied. So they have to move up the hierarchy in order. Theory X Y: Very simply, Theory X presents an essentially negative view of people and Theory Y offers a positive view. Two-factor theory: motivation-hygiene theory proposes that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction. McClellands Theory of Needs: McClelland proposed that an individuals specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by ones early life experiences. Theory focuses onpeople havingthree fundamental needs that exist in different degrees, one being a stronger preference:- The need for achievement The need for affiliation The need for power (authority) A persons motivation and effectiveness in certain job functions are influenced by these three needs because they have different level of needs in each of these areas. (Edwards, 2009.) Goal setting Theory: Conscious goals affect action. A goal is the object or aim of an action. For example -: to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually within a specified time limit. As industrial-organizational psychologists, our primary interest has been to predict, explain, and influence performance on organizational or work-related tasks. Thus, we focused on the relationship between conscious performance goals and level of task performance rather than on discrete intentions to take specific actions. Reinforcement Theory: In contrast to goal-setting theory, reinforcement theory says that behaviour is a function of its consequences. Goal-setting theory proposes that an individuals purpose directs his or her behaviour. Reinforcement theory argues that behaviour is externally caused. What controls behaviour are reinforcers, consequences that, when given immediately following a behaviour, increase the probability that the behaviour will be repeated. The key to reinforcement theory is that it ignores factors such as goals, expectations, and needs. Instead, it focuses solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action. Expectancy Theory: Expectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. It includes three variables or relationships Equity Theory: This is a process theory that focuses on individuals perceptions of how fairly they are treated relative to others. The 4 most common ways to reduce a perceived inequity are to, Change inputs. Change outcomes. Distort perceptions. Leave the job. Usefulness of Motivation Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Managers can recognize individual differences by using above theories as almost every contemporary motivation theory recognizes that employees arent identical. They have different needs, attitudes, personality, and other important individual variables. Also managers can match people to jobs. Theres a great deal of evidence showing the motivational benefits of carefully matching people to jobs. For example, high achievers should have jobs that allow them to participate in setting moderately challenging goals and that involve autonomy and feedback. Also keep in mind that not everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in autonomy, variety, and responsibility. Employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcer for one may not for another. Managers should use their knowledge about theories and concepts of motivation to motivate employee using different reward systems. Ex-: Individualize the rewards they control, such as pay, promotions, recognition, desirable work assignments, autonomy, and participation. Link rewards to performance. Allocation of performance-based wage increases Piecework bonuses Pay incentives is important in determining employee motivation. So as mentioned above managers can induce employees to achieve organizational goals through knowledge of motivational theories and concepts 3.6. Leadership The aspect of leadership is perhaps one of the most influential elements in organizational behavior. This is because the leaders are expected to direct the company in such a way as to maximize corporate objectives while minimizing costs. Leadership is a special case of interpersonal influence that gets an individual or group to do what the leader wants done (Wood, Wallance, Zeffane, Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, 2001). Trait Theories: Trait theories are more traditional and focus on the personal traits of leaders from those of followers. Six traits associated with effective leadership included; ambition and energy the desire to lead honesty and integrity self-confidence intelligence job relevant knowledge Traits alone were not sufficient for explaining effective leadership. Explanations based solely on traits ignored the interactions of leaders and their group members as well as situational factors. Possessing the appropriate traits only made it more likely that an individual would be an effective leader. Behavioural Theories: Behavioral therapists take a different approach. Behavioralists try to determine the types of leadership behaviors that have produced a higher level of work performance. There are four main leader behaviour studies we need to look at. Managerial Grid Concern for people: measured leaders concern for subordinates on a scale of 1 to 9 (low to high) Concern for production: measured leaders concern for getting job done on a scale of 1 to 9 (low to high) Contingency Theory: In this section we examine five contingency theories. Each looks at defining leadership style and the situation and attempts to answer the if-then contingencies (i.e., if this is my situation, then this is the best leadership style for me to use) The Fiedler Model the Fiedler contingency model proposed that effective group performance depended on the proper match between the leaders style of interacting with his or her followers and the degree to which the situation allowed the leader to control and influence. The model was based on the premise that a certain leadership style would be most effective in different types of situations. The key was to define those leadership styles and the different types of situations and then to identify the appropriate combinations of style and situation. Fiedler proposed that a key factor in leadership success was an individuals basic leadership style. He further suggested that a persons style was one of two types: task oriented or relationship oriented. To measure a leaders style, Fiedler developed the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire. This questionnaire contained 16 pairs of contrasting adjectives. After an individuals basic leadership style had been assessed through the LPC, it was necessary to evaluate the situation in order to match the leader with the situation. Fiedlers research uncovered three contingency dimensions that defined the key situational factors for determining leader effectiveness. These were: Leader-member relations: the degree of confidence, trust, and respect employees had for their leader; rated as either good or poor Task structure: the degree to which job assignments were formalized and procedurized; rated as either high or low Position power: the degree of influence a leader had over power-based activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases; rated as either strong or weak Each leadership situation was evaluated in terms of these three contingency variables. Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory focuses on followers readiness. SLT says if followers are; Telling (high task-low relationship): The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks. Selling (high task-high relationship): The leader provides both directive and supportive behavior. Participating (low task-high relationship): The leader and follower share in decision making; the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating. Delegating (low task-low relationship): The leader provides little direction or support. Leader Participation Model related leadership behaviour and participation in decision making. The model argued that leader behaviour must adjust to reflect the task structure whether it was routine, nonroutine, or anywhere in between. Leadership Styles in the Vroom Leader Participation Model are; Decide: Leader makes the decision alone and either announces or sells it to group. Consult Individually: Leader presents the problem to group members individually, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Consult Group: Leader presents the probelm to group members in a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Facilitate: Leader presents the problem to the group in a meeting and, acting as facilitator, defines the problem and the boundaries within which a decision must be made. Delegate: Leader permits the group to make the decision within prescribed limits. Path-Goal Model which states that its the leaders job to assist his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide the direction or support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization. House identified four leadership behaviors: Directive leader: lets subordinates know whats expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance on how to accomplish tasks Supportive leader: is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers Participative leader: consults with group members and uses their suggestions before making a decision Achievement-oriented leader: sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level Path goal theory Leader-Member Exchange Theory indicates that leaders develop special relationships with trusted followers. Usefulness of Leadership Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Leadership may not always be important but the aspect of leadership is conceivably one of the most influential elements in organizational behavior. This is because the leaders are expected to direct the company in such a way as to maximize corporate objectives while minimizing costs. In perhaps more than any other area of organizational behavior the leadership aspect is a combination of learning theories, power, personality, performance appraisal and motivation. This is because leadership is the process whereby an individual must gain the voluntary participation of subordinates with the goal of attaining corporate objectives. Thus, a leaders personality and sense of power will influence this process. Further, motivation is a key aspect of leadership because goal will not be attained if subordinates are not properly motivated to achieve them and performance appraisal is a key element in this process. Without adequate feedback that is quantifiable, leaders will not be able to assess em ployee performance reliably or measure progress in attaining corporate objectives. So its important to have knowledge of leadership concepts and theories to both employees and managers to achieve organizational goals. 3.7. Groups A group is defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals. Groups can either be formal or informal. Formal groups are work groups established by the organization that have designated work assignments and specific tasks. In formal groups, appropriate behaviours are established by and directed toward organizational goals. Five stage Group Development Model Forming stage: The first stage in group development characterised by much uncertainty. Storming stage: The second stage in group development characterised by intra-group conflict. Norming stage: The third stage in group development, characterised by close relationships and cohesiveness. Performing stage: The fourth stage development, when the group is fully functional. Adjourning stage: The final stage in group development for temporary groups characterised by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. Group Behaviour Model Group behaviour emanates from the causes that contribute to the groups effectiveness. Usefulness of Group Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. The group task is a whole and meaningful piece of work, with a visible outcome. According to